SF 

243 

,P7 



DEFECTS IN THE QUALITY 
OF BUTTER 



BY 

C. W. FRYHOFER 

Butter Inspector, Food Products Inspection Service 
Bureau of Agricultural Economics 




UP«T^> ST:A:TE& DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



/>" 



DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR 236 



Washington, D. C. 



Issued August, 1922 



WASHINQTON : QOVERNMENT PRINTINQ OFFICE : 1922 



FOREWORD. 

PRODUCERS AND MANUFACTURERS of inferior-quality 
dairy products annually receive several million dollars 
less than they would if they did not permit imperfect con- 
ditions and methods in the production, manufacture, and 
marketing of dairy products. 

In the larger wholesale markets the price of butter depends 
primarily upon its quality and condition as determined by 
the receiver or by local or Federal butter inspectors on close 
examination of the flavor, body, color, salt, and package. 
During the year 1920 the marginal difference in the prices 
of high and lower quality butter amounted at times to as 
much as 15 cents between 87 score and 92 score. In fact, 
there has never been a time in the history of American 
butter making when it paid so well to produce high-quality 
butter as during recent years. 

As a business proposition it is safe to assume that quality 
is a chief factor in determination of butter prices, and a 
butter-making plant that wishes to pay the highest market 
price for butterfat and expects to bxiild up a regular, satis- 
factory, and permanent market must eliminate the defects 
which result in low quality and low prices. 

In the marketing of butter in a wholesale market it is 
rather surprising how a small defect in quality will result 
in the loss of a sale or a cut in the price. Often the 
lack of proper attention or care in the creamery in grading 
the cream, or in churning, working, salting, or packing the 
butter, results in varying defects and qualities and an un- 
standardized product. Uniformity in quality, or standard- 
ization of quality, is of great importance. It behooves the 
butter maker or creamery manager who wishes to insure an 
active demand for his product at all times to ascertain the 
particular requirements of the market he is supplying and 
to strive to eliminate every defect in the quality of butter 
that is discriminated against by the trade. High quality and 
uniformity of product, with good marketing methods, are 
required to secure the largest net return and the highest 
degree of satisfaction. 



(n) 



SFZGS 



DEFECTS IN THE QUALITY OF BUTTER/ 

By C. W. Fbyhofee, Butter Inspector, Food Products Inspection Service, 
Bureau of Agricultural Economics. 



CONTENTS. 



Five classes of defects in quality. 

The rating of flavor 

The rating- of body 

The rating of color 

The rating of salt 

The rating of package 

Defects in flavor 

Fishy flavor 

Metallic flavor 

Oily flavor 

Defects in body and texture 



Page. 

1 
1 



Page. 
Defects in body and texture — Con. 

Causesof defects in body texture- 9 

Defects in color 10 

Prevention of color defects 11 

Pefects caused by salt 12 

Prevention of gritty butter 12 

Defects in package 12 

Defects through mold 13 

Prevention of mold 13 

Location of butter inspection offlces_ 14 



FIVE CLASSES OF DEFECTS IN QUALITY. 

IN THE MAKKET INSPECTION OF BUTTER its quality is 
considered from the standpoint of flavor, body, color, salt, and 
package. In determining the final score each of these factors is rated 
separately, with the following number of points given to each: 
Flavor, 45 ; body, 25 ; color, 15 ; salt, 10 ; and package, 5 ; total, 100. 
The ratings given to each factor are governed by the absence or pres- 
ence of certain defects. A careful reading of the following rules ^ 
used by the Federal Bureau of Agricultural Economics in the 
inspection of butter under the food products inspection law will in- 
dicate the effect of defects on the rating given each factor and the 
final score of the butter, 

THE RATING OF FLAVOR. 

The rating given to flavor shall be determined by the flavor char- 
acteristics as follows : 
A. Desirable flavors, minimum rating of 37 points. 

(a) Butter tliat is fresli, fine, sweet, mild and clean in flavor and has a 
certain creaminess or richness that gives it a particularly pleasing 
taste and aroma, shall receive a rating of 40 to 45 points inclusive. 

1 The material contained in this circular was contributed in part by S. C. Thompson and 
M. P. A. Sondergaard of the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

2 Those desiring detailed information regarding butter inspection may obtain a copy of 
Service and Regulatory Announcement (Markets) No. 51, The Inspection of Butter Under 
the Pood Products Inspection Law, by applying to the Division of Publications, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

110133°— 22 1 



2 Department Circular 236, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

A. Desirable flavors, minimum rating of 37 points— Continued. 

(6) Butter that is fresh, fine, sweet, and clean in flavor if of fresh make, 
or fine, sweet, and clean if storage, shall be given a rating of 38 to 
39 points, inclusive. 

(c) Butter that is fresh, sweet, and clean in flavor if of fresh make, or 
sweet and clean if storage, shall be given a rating of not less than 
37 points. 
B. Objectionable flavors. 

(a) Maximum rating of 36 points. Butter that is free from "foreign" 
or " ofE " flavors but which shows any of the following taints or 
flavors shall receive a rating of 36 points or less for flavor, accord- 
ing to the degree of defect, and shall receive a maximum of 36 
points, provided the flavor is only slightly objectionable. 

(1) Mechanical taints — flavors having their origin in the pro- 

cess of manufacture or in the conditions under which the 
butter is held after manufacture, but not indicating aged 
or stale cream: Burnt, oily, heated, mealy, frozen cream, 
greasy, lardy; also storage and fruity flavors in held 
butter. 

(2) Bacterial taints — flavors having their origin in. bacterial de- 

velopment but not indicating aged or stale cream : Cowy, 
barny, acidy, yeasty, summery, cheesy, curdy. 

(3) Feed taints — flavors having their origin in feed conditions 

at the point of production, but not indicating aged or stale 
cream: Weedy, frosted feed. 
(6) Maximum rating of 35 points. Butter showing the following objec- 
tionable flavors shall be given a rating of 35 points or less, accord- 
ing to the degree of defect : Metallic, wintry, bitter ; also " old " 
flavor in held butter, 
(c) Maximum rating of 33 points. Butter showing the following objec- 
tionable flavors shall be given a rating of 33 points or less : Un- 
clean, musty, distinct lime or alkaline flavors. 

C. Foreign flavors. 

(a) Maximum rating of 33 points. Butter showing a taint of gasoline 
and having no other objectionable flavor shall be given a rating 
of 33 points or less. 

(5) Maximum rating of 32 points. Butter showing garlic or wild onion 
flavor shall be given a rating of 32 points or less, 

D. OfE flavors, maximum rating of 32 points. Butter that shows any of the 

following flavors ordinarily termed " off " flavors, shall be given a 
rating of 32 points or less, depending upon the extent of the defect : 
Fishy, tallowy, unclean, stale cream, stale oily, stale metallic, stale 
sour, stale cheesy. 

THE RATING OF BODY. 

Butter receiving the maximum rating of 25 points for body must 
have a firm, waxy texture and a perfect grain, as indicated by a 
jagged or irregular toothed edge, when the butter is broken apart. 
It must be free from salviness or excess free moisture and must not 
show a milkj^ brine. 

THE RATING OF COLOR. 

Butter receiving the full rating of 15 points for color must be 
free from all foreign color specks, waviness, streaks or mottles, and 



Defects in the Quality of Butter. S 

must be uniform in color in all parts. The ratings given to the 
various degrees of uniform color shall be as follows : 

A. Light color : Butter having a light straw color shall be given the full rat- 

ing of 15 points. 

B. Medium color : Butter having the color of the natural grass product, witk- 

out the use of additional coloring, shall be given the full rating of 15 
points. 

C. High color : Butter having a color higher than that of natural grass butter 

shall be given a maximum rating of 14 points. 

THE RATING OF SALT. 



Butter which is not excessively high in salt and which shows no 
undissolved salt and in which the salt is uniform shall be given the 
maximum of 10 points for salt. The ratings given butter showing 
different amounts of salt properly dissolved shall be as follows : 

A. Unsalted butter shall be given the full rating of 10 points. 

B. Light salted butter that contains 1^ per cent or less of salt and has a very 

slight salty taste shall be given the full rating of 10 points. 
Medium salted butter that contains over IJ per cent and not above 3i per 

cent of salt and has a mild and yet distinct salty taste shall be given 

the full rating of 10 points. 
High salted butter that contains over 3J per cent of salt and has a sharp, 

briny, or pronounced salty taste shall be given a maximum rating of 9 

points. 



C 



D 



THE RATING OF PACKAGE. 



Butter receiving the full rating of 5 points for package must be 
neatly and properly packed in sound, uniform packages which are 
clean and entirely free from mold. 

Chart of characteristics of 'butter of certain scores or qualities. 



De- 
fined 
score. 



Flavor. 



Body. 



Color. 



Salt. 



Package. 



95 and 
above. 



94-93.. 



92. 



91. 



Desirable flavors: Fine, 
sweet, clean, with 
pleasing creamy 
aroma. 

Desirable flavors: Fine, 
sweet, clean. Total 
defects other than 
flavor not over 4 
point. 

Desirable flavors: 
Sweet and clean 
(shght storage fla- 
vor in held butter). 
Total defects other 
than flavor not over 
1 point. 

Shght objectionable 
flavors, fairly sweet 
and fairly clean 
(storage flavor in 
held butter). 



Perfect, firm, 
waxy. 

Firm 



.do 



.do. 



Perfect light or 
medium. 



Light or me- 
dium. 



Light or me- 
dium, slight, 
curd specks or 
waviness. 



Light or me- 
dium, uni- 
form, curd 
specks, wavi- 
ness. 



Perfect light or 
medium. 



Light or me- 
dium. 



Light or me- 
dium, well dis- 
solved, uni- 
form. 



Light, medium, 
or high, well 
dissolved, uni- 
form. 



Must be attrac- 
tive, neat, 
clean, uniform 
and sound. 

Free from mold, 
clean, uniform, 
and sound. 



Clean, uniform, 
and sound. 



Do. 



4 Department Circular 236, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. 

Chart of characteristics of butter of certain scores or quantities — Continued. 



De- 
fined 
score. 


Flavor. 


Body. 


Color. 


Salt. 


Package. 


90 

89 

88 


Objectionable flavors 
shown: Fairly sweet 
and fairly clean, 
may be flat and lack- 
ing in flavor (old 
flavor in held but- 
ter). 

Objectionable flavors 
permitted; reason- 
ably sweet and rea- 
sonably clean. 

Objectionable flavors 
distinctly developed; 
also imclean tamt, 
musty, distinct lime 
or other alkaline fla- 
vors shown. 

Garlic and off-flavors 
slightly evident. 

Garlic and off-flavors 
distinctly evident. 

Pronounced garUc and 
off-flavors. 

May be slightly rancid 
or strong on tops 
and sides. 

Rancid or strong on 
tops and sides. 

Butter containing 'de- 
fects of a more 
marked degree than 
specified above are 
given a score below 
80, depending upon 
the extent of the de- 
fects. 


Fairly firm 

Reasonably 
firm. 

do 


Light or me- 
dium, fairly 
uniform, wavy. 

Light, medium, 
or high, dis- 
tinct waviness. 

Slightly mot- 
tled. 

Distinctly mot- 
tled or streak- 
ed. 

Very mottled, 
streaked, or 
high. 


SUghtly gritty, 
fairly uniform. 

Somewhat 
gritty, fairly 
uniform. 

May be gritty 
and somewhat 
irregular. 

Gritty and ir- 
regular. 

Irregular, ex- 
tremely high, 
and gritty. 

do 


Clean, uniform, 
and sound. 

Uniform and 
sound. 

Do. 


87 

86 


Weak and con- 
siderably de- 
fective. 

do 


Do. 
Do. 


85 


Weak, but must 
be fairly solid 
boring. 

May be ragged 
boring. 

do 


Do. 


84-83.. 
82-30. . 


Very mottled, 
streaked, or 
e xtremely 
high. 


Extremely high 
irregular and, 
gritty. 

do 


Do. 
Sound. 


80-75. . 





















DEFECTS IN FLAVOR. 

A classification of the varous defects in flavor and the rating 
given these defects by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in 
the inspection rules under the food products inspection law was 
given on page 1 under the heading "The rating of flavor." It 
should be noted that butter to score 37 on flavor or grade 92 or 
" extra," as it is now known in the trade, must be " fresh, sweet, 
and clean in flavor if of fresh make, or sweet and clean if stor- 
age." To receive a rating of above 37 on flavor or score above 92, 
the flavor must be more desirable, creamy, sweet, and fine and of 
particularly pleasing taste and aroma. It is obvious that such 
flavors in butter can be supplied only by cream that possesses them. 
Therefore any cream containing objectionable flavors should be 
graded out if high-scoring butter is to be made. The importance 
of proper grading and of offering an inducement to producers to 
produce cream of the highest quality must not be overlooked by 
the creamery manager or butter maker who desires to produce high- 
quality butter. 



Defects in the Quality of Butter. 5 

Objectionable flavors in butter that show only slight development 
may include mechanical taints which have their origin in defective 
processes of manufacture, bacterial taints which indicate slight bac- 
terial development of undesirable character, and feed taints caused 
by feed conditions. Butter possessing these, but showing neither 
aged nor stale cream flavor, is rated 36 or less on flavor, depending 
on their development, and scores 91 or less, and ordinarily sells for 
1 cent to 3 cents less per pound than butter scoring 92. As the 
degree of defect increases or more objectionable flavors become 
prominent, such as slight metallic, bitter, musty, unclean, stale sour, 
stale oily, tallowy, cheesy, or fishy, the rating of flavor is cut and 
a lower score results, with a corresponding reduction in value of 
the butter. The causes of some of these objectionable flavors are 
suggested in thei» names, while others have been determined by 
thorough investigations. Among these latter may be mentioned 
fishy, metallic, and oily flavors. 

FISHY FLAVOR. 

Extensive investigations of fishy flavor in butter have not yet 
revealed any specific factor which might be considered as the sole 
cause of this objectionable taste. Theories advanced from time to 
time have attributed it to such causes as impure natural ice added 
direct to cream; overripe or otherwise defective starters; improper 
pasteurizing; exposure of milk and cream to the hot sun during 
transit; vats, starter cans, and pasteurizing apparatus with the tin 
worn off, rusty pipes, cans, and utensils ; slushy texture in butter, and 
decomposition of the nonf atty constituents caused by bacterial action. 

However, since investigations in different countries have met with 
seemingly different results, it is assumed that the cause is complex in 
nature and that fishy flavor has its origin in various factors or a 
combination of factors. One thing commonly agreed upon is that 
acid in cream is essential to the development of fishy flavor. This 
has also been demonstrated in the butter made from pasteurized 
sweet cream for the use of the United States Navy and which, when 
kept for long periods of time in cold storage, has never developed 
fishy flavor. 

Inasmuch as it has been demonstrated that iron rust and verdigris 
when mixed with high-acid cream cause fishy flavor, it is generally 
believed that these ingredients are frequently contributing factors 
and that in most cases the trouble may be traced to chemical changes. 

PEEVENTION OF FISHY FLAVOE. 

Among the various preventive methods, the following are worthy 
of careful consideration : 



6 Department Circular ^36, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

1. As fishy flavor occurs most readily in high-acid creara, it is 
obvious that the control of acidity in the ripening process is of utmost 
importance. Cases are on record in which the trouble has been en- 
tirely eliminated by close attention to the propagation of starters and 
to the checking of acidity in the cream at the proper time during the 
ripening process. Irregular and infrequent delivery of cream should 
be avoided. This detrimental, slipshod method causes the cream to 
be held for an undue length of time and usually results in the devel- 
opment of high acid. 

2. Exposure to the hot sun during transit should be prevented by a 
suitable covering or blankets, preferably applied wet. 

3. The use of rusty, insanitary, and otherwise defective cans should 
be prohibited. When cans are returned empty it is essential that they 
be properly washed, sterilized, and dried at the f ^tory. 

4. Great caution should be exercised when pasteurizing to prevent 
the " oiling off " of the fat during the process. If the flash method is 
used, it is essential that the supply of cream be constant and so 
regulated that the pasteurizer may work at full capacity. When the 
vat method is used it is important that the cream be stirred suffi- 
ciently while being heated. If the cream is of a heavy consistency, 
a slow heat must be applied until it flows readily over the coils. To 
insure proper stirring a vat should be filled only to within 4 inches 
of the top. 

5. Since it has been proved that fishy flavor may develop from the 
action of acid on copper, iron, and certain alloys in pipes, pasteur- 
izers, coolers, starter cans, vats, or other apparatus, none but heavily 
tinned apparatus should be used. 

6. High churning temperatures and overworking of the butter 
should be guarded against. 

METALLIC FLAVOR. 

Metallic flavor, like fishy flavor, is one of the most objectionable 
tastes that develops in butter. The two are closely allied, and both 
apparently may originate from the same sources. In fact, metallic 
flavor is often considered to be a forerunner of fishy flavor. 

Butter affected with metallic flavor is avoided by butter dealers 
because of its poor keeping qualities. Being unfit for storage pur- 
poses, such butter must be consumed immediately if heavy loss is 
to be avoided. 

PEEVENTION OF METALLIC FLAVOR. 

Wliile it is true that the specific element or combination of ele- 
ments producing metallic flavor has not been fully determined, it has 
been amply demonstrated that the following precautions will prevent 
or greatly retard this defect. 



Defects in the Quality of Butter. 7 

1. There should be no cracks or open seams in vats, coils, or any 
other apparatus with which cream comes in contact. Small defects 
or leaks of this sort often result in serious contamination of the 
cream. 

2. Cans, utensils, faucets, boltheads in chum, etc., should be kept 
free from rust by scouring or retinning. The presence of apparently 
insignificant traces of iron rust and verdigris from exposed copper 
has frequently proved to be the direct cause of the metallic flavor 
in butter. This is especially the case if heated cream containing a 
certain amount of acid comes in contact with exposed surfaces. 

3. Abnormal fermentation should be watched for in starter and 
cream. As soon as a slight " off " or " foreign " flavor becomes notice- 
able, a new culture should be provided. 

4. So far as possible, dilution of cream with water should be 
avoided. Pasteurization of diluted cream whose viscosity has been 
reduced tends to injure the butter fat. 

5. High a,cidity in cream should be guarded against. Acidity 
of cream has proved to be a fundamental factor in producing metallic 
flavor. 

6. Butter should not be overworked. Overworking tends to in- 
crease the air content, and the presence of an abnormal amount of 
air causes rapid oxidation of the casein, thus tending to produce 
metallic flavor. 

OILY FLAVOR. 

Oily flavor in butter is a defect most frequently found during the 
summer months. It includes a variety of flavors all distinctive to the 
taste. While these flavors are generally associated with butter 
made from excessively sour and poor material, they are by no means 
confined to the lower grades. Even butter made from sweet cream 
is often found to have a marked oily flavor. Whenever such flavors 
are present, the butter is considered by all dealers to be lacking in 
keeping qualities. 

These oily flavors may be divided into two groups: The unclean, 
fatty, and greasy kind, and the more pronounced strongly-repugnant 
kind, similar to the taste of old, impure machine oil. The first kind 
is caused by faulty manufacturing methods. The second is attributed 
by investigators to undesirable bacterial action. 

PRE\'ENTION OF OILY FLAVORS. 

While it is difficult to give specific preventives or remedies for 
all cases of oiliness, the following precautions have proved helpful 
in many instances. 

1. Close attention to the quality of the cream received will im- 
press patrons with the necessity of the proper handling of cream on 



8 Department Circular 236, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

the farm and during transit where the cans are likely to be exposed 
to the sun. 

2. During pasteurization of cream great care must be exercised 
to prevent entirely the " oiling off " of the butter fat, which is likely 
to occur through the underfeeding of the pasteurizer when the con- 
tinuous method is used, through insufficient stirring of cream in the 
vat method, or through the sudden application of too much heat. 

3. The dilution of cream with water, either through leaky coils 
or vats, or by rinsing cans with excessive amounts of water, will 
almost invariably result in an oily product. 

4. Oiliness has sometimes been traced to impure wash water or 
to water containing too much iron. 

6. Too much stress can not be placed upon the necessity of insuring 
the proper condition of the butter for working. This condition 
can be obtained only by cooling and holding the cream at a suffi- 
ciently low temperature to obtain the desired hardening of the fat 
before churning. 

6. Overworking of butter, especially when in a soft condition, 
breaks down the grain and develops oily flavor. 

T. Of great significance in successful buttermaking is the careful 
and accurate preparation of starters. A weak or contaminated 
starter is often responsible for oiliness in butter, 

DEFECTS IN BODY AND TEXTURE. 

The body of butter is almost entirely under the control of the 
butter maker, and defective body can generally be charged to his 
failure to conduct properly the various processes of manufacture. 
The condition of the cream when received, however, sometimes makes 
his task a difficult one. In the case of cream which has been badly 
overheated, or which comes from stripper cows fed on dry feed in 
cold weather, it is practically impossible to produce perfect body. 
While the butter maker is responsible for most of the body defects, 
yet difference in localities, change of season, and varying tempera- 
tures are factors which he must always take into consideration. He 
must understand the conditions and have proper equipment in his 
factory for controlling them. The body of butter has a marked 
effect on the flavor, as all defects in body injure the flavor to a 
greater or lesser degree. 

In judging the body and texture of butter, a perfect body must 
be firm, with a grain which has a rough, irregular edge when broken, 
and a waxy texture. The most common defects are greasy body, 
salvy body, weak body, leaky body, and mealy body. 



Defects in the Quality of Butter. 9 

CAUSES OF DEFECTS IN BODY AND TEXTURE. 

A greasy body is usually due to one or more of the following 
causes : Churning cream which has not been properly cooled, churn- 
ing at too high temperature, churning very rich cream, washing 
with water that is too warm, overworking the butter, and allowing 
it to stand at too high temperatures before placing it in the refrig- 
erator. In greasy butter the grain has been destroyed. This is 
largely due to high temperatures, which may have been during the 
manufacturing process, or the fat in the cream may have overheated 
and not properly cooled prior to churning. Overworking soft butter 
also has much to do with making it greasy. 

A salvy body is similar to greasy body to the extent that the grain 
is broken down, but in the case of salvy body it is caused by improper 
working or by overworking while the butter is in a firm condition. 
Therefore butter with salvy body is sticky or pasty. The extreme 
chilling of butter granules in the churn just before working often 
causes this defect. 

A weak body lacks firmness and compactness and melts down 
quickly when exposed to moderately high temperatures. It is 
usually the result of churning cream which has not been sufficiently 
cooled. Either it was not cooled to a low enough temperature or it 
was not held long enough at a low temperature. Overworking 
butter made from cream not properly cooled tends to cause weak 
body. Weak-bodied butter is often leaky. 

A leaky body is caused by incomplete and improper combining of 
the fat and water which leaves the water in pockets or in large drops 
that easily leak from the butter. The cause is similar to that of 
other body defects, namely, churning cream which has not been 
properly cooled, in which the fat globules have not been sufficiently 
hardened, together with improper methods of salting and working 
the butter. Extremely low churning temperature and the use of 
very cold wash water with insufficient working also cause leaky but- 
ter. If the body of the buter is firm and the salt and water properly 
incorporated, so that the brine is distributed in fine droplets through- 
out the entire mass of butter, leakiness will not appear. Leaky butter 
often contains less actual moisture than properly worked butter, 
although it appears to show an excess of water. 

A mealy body has a granular or mealy consistency which is espe- 
cially noticeable when placed in the mouth. It does not have the 
smooth, waxy texture of properly made butter. 

Mealiness is caused by heating the cream too rapidly or too high 
without sufficient agitation or by partly churning the cream through 
excessive agitation during the cooling process when the vat method 
of pasteurization is used. It may also be caused by underfeeding 
the pasteurizer when the continuous method is used. 



10 Department Circular 236, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

When cream is heated too rapidly or too high without sufficient 
agitation, or when the continuous pasteurizer is not fed rapidly- 
enough, the fat melts and separates. When this melted fat hardens 
on cooling it becomes granular and gives the butter a granular or 
mealy consistency. 

To prevent mealiness the cream should be so handled that at no 
time will it be exposed to excessive temperatures during pasteuriza- 
tion. It should be kept thoroughly agitated from the time heating 
begins until cooled to a temperature of 70° F. or below. If the con- 
tinuous method of pasteurization is used the cream should flow 
through the machine with sufficient rapidity so that it will not be 
exposed too long to the high temperature used. 

Another cause of mealiness is the improper treatment of frozen 
cream. If the attempt is made to thaw such cream rapidly by ex- 
posure to a very high temperature the fat will almost invariably be 
melted, and this will cause mealiness when the fat is cooled. This 
can be prevented by taking care not to heat above 90° F. It is best 
done by setting the cans of cream in a tank of water kept at that tem- 
perature. 

All body defects may be avoided by cooling the cream to churning 
temperature or below, holding at that temperature for 3 or 4 hours, 
at least, and preferably overnight, churning at temperatures which 
will produce butter granules the size of wheat kernels in from 45 
to 50 minutes, washing the butter with water of the same tempera- 
ture as the buttermilk, or 1 to 2° colder in summer and a similar 
amount higher in winter, working immediately just enough to incor- 
porate thoroughly the salt and water, producing a firm, waxy body, 
and placing it at once in the refrigerator. To get the most satisfactory 
and uniform results, cream ha^»ing a fat content of from 27 to 33 per 
cent should be used. It is also desirable, whatever the fat content of 
the cream, that it be uniform from day to day to prevent varying 
results. 

DEFECTS IN COLOR. 

Defects in color always lower the market value of butter, whether 
the quality is good or poor. However, the higher the quality the 
more serious becomes the defect and the more it injures the market 
value of the butter, for the reason that the class of trade using the 
fine-quality butter is as discriminating in regard to color as it is to 
flavor or quality. 

Mottles are innumerable small spots of different shades of yellow 
color, irregular in shape, and appearing throughout the entire mass. 
Wavy butter shows different shades of yellow color in the form of 
layers or waves, and streaked butter shows different shades of yellow 
color in the form of streaks or blotches. 



Defects in the Quality of Butter. 11 

This unevenness in color is mainly caused by the water and salt 
being distributed unevenly in the butter, although in the case of 
streakiness and waviness, incorrect setting of the churn and defective 
working rollers may be contributing causes. When water and salt 
are not evenly distributed in butter, that portion which has the 
brine more completely incorporated or broken up into finer particles 
will show a lighter shade of yellow than other portions in which the 
incoporation is less complete. Therefore, insufficient or irregular 
working results in uneven color. Continued working breaks up the 
particles of brine still further and causes a paler color, which ex- 
plains the different shades found in butter of different churnings, even 
when no articficial color is used. Overworked butter, however, 
always has a dull, unattractive, and pale appearance. 

PREVENTION OF C01.0R DEFECTS. 

The main preventive measures lie in working the butter uniformly 
•and sufficiently to insure a thorough dissolving of the salt and a 
uniform incorporation of the moisture without injuring the body. 
This can be accomplished only by maintaining the proper tempera- 
ture of the butter throughout the working period. 

To insure uniform working it is necessary that the working rollers 
be straight, in perfect condition, and an equal distance apart at 
both ends and in the middle, and that the chum be set practically 
level. If the churn is not level the butter has a tendency to slide 
gradually toward the lower end, there to rub constantly against the 
end of the churn while being worked. Streaked butter is the re- 
sult. Uneven color may result also from overloading the churn dur- 
ing the working process, or from the rollers being farther apart at 
one end than the Other. Worn, defective, or improperly set rollers 
are likely to result in some portions of the butter receiving more 
working than others. When such butter is packed, \favy color 
naturally appears. 

If at the time the salt is added the moisture content of the butter 
is low, the method of sprinkling the salt uniformly over the entire 
batch is to be preferred to the trench method, as a more complete 
incorporation is obtained. 

White specks in butter arise from curd formation in the cream. 
When thin cream is held at a comparatively high temperature, the 
skim milk has a tendency to settle and coagulate, forming a curd 
which breaks up into fine, hard particles during churning. These 
curd specks become mixed with the butter and not only produce 
white specks but greatly reduce the keeping qualities. Skimming 
a rich cream or holding it at low temperatures and stirring it fre- 
quently will prevent the formation of hard curd. Curd particles 
may be partially eliminated by carefully straining the cream into 



12 Department Circular 236, V. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

the churn and by washing the butter thoroughly while in the granular 
state. Hard curd particles are sometimes formed in the pasteuriza- 
tion of thin mixed sweet and sour cream. Such cream should be 
held at a temperature of about 110° F. for half an hour before being 
heated to pasteurization temperature. 

Yellow specks are caused by sediment in the color which, when 
mixed with butter, appears as red or yellow blotches. Such sedi- 
ment is formed when the coloring matter becomes cold, especially 
if exposed to freezing temperatures. Butter color that shows sedi- 
ment should be discarded, as a rule, although it may sometimes be 
restored by placing the container in boiling water for an hour or 
more. 

DEFECTS CAUSED BY SALT. 

Grittiness in butter is due to the presence of undissolved salt, and 
is objectionable because it gives the butter a coarse, salty flavor, while 
high-grade butter has a mild, delicate flavor and smooth texture. 

The principal causes of grittiness are the use of too much salt and 
insufficient working. Other causes are the use of salt that is too 
hard or too cold, and adding the salt to butter that is too dry. If 
salt is dry and hard it will not dissolve quickl}^, and when the work- 
ing process is completed the butter still contains grains of salt. A 
similar condition may result from the addition of cold salt to the 
butter granules, the cold retarding the process of dissolving. If 
salt is hard and cold it may be moistened with warm water which 
will soften and warm it so that the dissolving will be hastened. The 
quantity of salt that can be dissolved in butter depends on the 
water content of the butter, and if the granules are drained exces- 
sively there may not be water enough to dissolve the quantity of salt 
desired. Even though the butter contains the full amount of water 
permitted by law, it may be insufficient to dissolve the salt if exces- 
sive quantities of the latter are used. 

PREVENTION OF GRITTY BUTTER. 

If the proper amount of salt is added and the butter is in normal 
condition, the butter should be worked until the salt is completely 
dissolved. If the body of the butter is too firm, more working will 
,be required to distribute and dissolve the salt properly. Grittiness 
and irregular color may be overcome by proper working. The use 
of too coarse salt has a tendency to retard its solution and may result 
in grittiness if the butter is too dry or is worked incompletely or 
too rapidly. 

DEFECTS IN PACKAGE. 

The higher the quality or score of the butter, the more exacting 
are the requirements in regard to appearance, style, and proper finish 



Defects iri the Quality of Butter, 13 

of the package. Smaller cuts for defects in package are made when 
the butter is of inferior quality, since the trade using butter of the 
finest quality demands that the attractiveness of the package be in 
keeping with the high quality of the product. An attractive package 
has a psychological effect on the customer which should not be over- 
looked, even though the quality of the product is not the best. 

DEFECTS THROUGH MOLD. 

Mold is a condition that may be present on the outer or inner 
surface of the container, the parchment liner or wrapper, or the 
butter. The source of the mold may be mold spores in the cream, on 
the apparatus and utensils with which the butter comes in contact, 
on the parchment liners, or packages, or in the refrigerator. Air, 
moisture, food materials, and moderate temperatures are the main 
factors which promote mold development. It may appear at any 
season of the year, but warm, damp weather conditions are especially 
favorable for its growth, and consequently it is most common during 
the spring and early summer. 

PREVENTION OF MOLD. 

Scientific studies have shown that mold may be prevented by the 
application of heat, the use of simple remedies, and the observance 
of general rules of sanitation. As the germination of mold spores 
requires a certain amount of moisture, all buttermaking establish- 
ments should be equipped with a good system of ventilation, espe- 
cially in the storage room where packages and liners are kept. 

To prevent the development of mold the cream must be properly 
pasteurized and all apparatus and utensils thoroughly sterilized im- 
mediately before using. Casein furnishes an excellent food for mold, 
therefore butter containing excessive quantities of buttermilk or co- 
agulated curd is susceptible to mold growth. Thorough washing of 
the butter tends to reduce excessive quantities of casein in it. The 
tubs or boxes should be submerged in water at 180° F. for a few min- 
utes, steamed over a steam jet, and paraffined. Paraffin forms a sur- 
face on which mold can not grow. It closes up pores and cracks in 
the wood, thus making the containers practically air-tight. It pre- 
vents the forming of an air space between the butter and the con- 
tainer, which is often found when the moisture leaks out or is ab- 
sorbed by the wood. The paraffin should be applied in a thin coating 
at a temperature of not less than 240° F. This can be done best with 
a paraffining machine. The covers should receive the same treatment 
as the box or tub. 

The liners should be soaked in a scalding brine solution for a few 
moments preceding their use. This brine solution should be fre- 



14 Department Circular 236, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

quently changed because of the chemical and sizing substances thrown 
off from time to time by the parchment paper. 

Since air is necessary for the growth of mold, butter should be 
solidly packed, so as to leave no air pockets. 

Mold develops most readily between the temperatures of 50° F, and 
65° F. It is essential, therefore, that the temperature of the refrig- 
erator be held below the minimum stated. The refrigerator, of 
course, should be kept dry and free from all mold spots. After these 
precautions have been taken, care must be exercised that contamina- 
tion does not occur later and that the butter is constantly kept under 
conditions unfavorable to the growth of mold spores. 

LOCATION OF BUTTER INSPECTION OFFICES. 

The Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the United States Department 
of Agriculture maintains a butter-inspection service on the Boston,, Chicago, 
New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco markets, and at the request of 
shippers or other financially-interested parties makes official inspections of 
butter offered for interstate shipment or received at important central markets 
designated by the Secretary of Agriculture. These inspections are made in 
accordance v^^ith rules and regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agri- 
culture, and the fees charged depend on the size of the lot or the number 
of churnings in it. Any buttermaker, shipper, or dealer may obtain a report on 
the quality and condition of butter shipped to these markets by requesting the 
Bureau of Agricultural Economics to make an inspection. The addresses of 
the officers in these cities are as follovps : 402 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, Mass. ; 
505 City Hall Square Building, Chicago, 111.; 204 Franklin Street, New York, 
N. Y. ; 312 The Bourse, Philadelphia, Pa. ; Appraisers' Building, San Fran- 
cisco, Calif. ; United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



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